Canadian International Development Agency Background Paper: Technical and Vocational Education and Training

1.0 Introduction

CIDA's commitment to the Education for All (EFA) and Millennium Development Goals has been expressed through a strong focus on improving access, quality and equality in basic education. Gradually, progress is being made; school enrolment rates have increased, gender equality in education is slowly improving, and the worldwide median primary completion rate is over 85 percent. With more children completing primary school, developing country governments are now increasing their focus on the provision of relevant and effective secondary education that can lead to productive employment.

Developing country governments are well aware of the educational and employment needs of young people, many of whom have not completed even a primary education. Many young people are stuck in low productivity jobs. Governments realize that when young people remain unemployed or underemployed for long periods of time, human resources are wasted and the risk of social unrest increases, with a negative impact on investment climate, growth and social stability.

The spread of new technologies to developing countries has sharply increased the demand for skilled workers. However, many young people, particularly the poorest, are starting work too early without having developed the basic skills that could make them marketable to employers. Students are completing primary and secondary school without having the skills that allow them to adapt to changes in the labour market. Large numbers of university graduates in developing countries are unable to find jobs, while business and industry are unable to find qualified workers. As many unemployed and uneducated youth from rural areas migrate to large cities in search of better opportunities, urban social and economic structures are strained. At the same time, many rural communities are left without some of their most productive members.

This paper is intended to provide background on some of the key issues, opportunities and challenges for TVET programming in developing countries, and to examine the strategic role that CIDA and its partners could play in developing TVET as a vital aspect of the educational process.

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2.0 TVET and Skills Development Programs

Internationally, the term TVET refers to vocational education provided in secondary school programs, in vocational training centers and in post-secondary institutions. These programs are designed to prepare students for direct entry to a particular occupation or trade, and usually lead to a labour-market vocational qualification that is recognized by relevant authorities. However, the fast pace of change in technology and in workplace environments means that a narrow set of skills relating to a specific trade or occupation will not be enough in labour markets that are constantly changing. Many employers, particularly those in the formal sector, are looking for employees with transferable skills including problem-solving, decision-making, communication and team-work.

The term technical and vocational skills development (TVSD) indicates a move away from a school-oriented approach and includes non-formal programs which may be delivered in the workplace and which do not lead to formal qualifications. TVSD also includes training acquired in the informal economic sector. TVSD programs focus on the educational and employment needs of socially and economically disadvantaged groups such as women, immigrants, refugees, minorities, indigenous peoples, and underprivileged and marginalized youth who do not have access to formal TVET programming.

Generally, CIDA has used the term TVET to refer to both TVET and TVSD.

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3.0. TVET and TVSD Program Delivery

Technical and vocational skills can be developed in formal programs in secondary schools, specialized technical institutions, and in post-secondary institutions. Large numbers of young people are currently developing skills through non-formal programs, through apprenticeships within the informal economic sector, and through workplace training programs. However, current levels of enrolment across these programs are difficult to estimate and the World Bank reports that statistics on access to the wide variety of TVET and TVSD programs are often unreliable.

3.1 Secondary TVET programming

UNESCO and the International Labour Organization (ILO) recommend upper secondary school (generally grades 10-12) as the appropriate level for the introduction of TVET programming. Upper secondary TVET programs are generally provided in composite schools that offer both academic and vocational subjects. These programs combine general secondary education, theoretical instruction related to an area of work, and practical training in the workplace. Typically, at least 50 percent of time is spent in the workplace.

In many regions, TVET is delivered in an entirely separate stream of technical and vocational institutions (TVIs). TVIs may be monotechnic in nature such as agricultural schools, or may be polytechnic, offering training for a variety of occupations in a number of sectors.

TVET programs at the upper secondary level, particularly in TVIs, present a number of issues for CIDA to consider. First, it is important to note that, while many vocational subjects such as accounting and entrepreneurship do not have higher costs than more academic subjects, others, such as laboratory-based subjects, involve significantly higher unit costs. High costs combined with low enrolment and completion rates have raised issues about the rates of return on investments in vocational secondary education, which, in some studies, have appeared to be lower than the rates of return to general education. The high cost of TVET programming, in terms of initial construction, installation of appropriate equipment, maintenance of facilities and on-going provision of supplies, also raises questions about sustainability, particularly in areas where the needs of the labour market may change relatively quickly and where government funding for secondary education is limited.

A second concern is that many of the young people marginalized in the development process, including young women, young people living in poverty, indigenous peoples and those living in remote, rural areas, do not reach secondary school at all. Secondary enrolment rates vary; UNICEF estimates that, in 2005, net secondary enrolment rates stood at 52 percent for males and 51 percent for females in developing countries, and at 33 percent for males and 29 percent for females in least developed countries. Actual attendance rates are significantly lower for both groups. Students that reach secondary school often want to follow an academic stream leading to university and are not interested in vocational training. The percentage of secondary students enrolled in TVET programs in 2004, as reported by UNESCO, is shown below.

Enrolment in TVET as % of total secondary enrolment

All African Least Developed Countries	5.7
All Asian Least Developed Countries	1.2
All Island Least Developed Countries	3.5
All Least Developed Countries	2.6
Sub-Saharan Africa	7.7
Developing Countries	10.4
Latin America and the Caribbean	10.0
East Asia and the Pacific	17.1
Developed countries	20.6

This means that in a Least Developed Country such as Cambodia, with secondary school attendance rates of 17 percent for males and 11 percent for females, only 0.2 percent of young men, and 0.1  percent of young women of secondary school age, are attending TVET programs.

UNESCO and World Bank Studies indicate that these low enrolment figures are directly related to the perception on the part of students, parents and employers that the quality of the training provided in many TVET settings is not strong. This view is based on a number of problems. In many areas, TVET curriculum is considered to be out-of-date and irrelevant. Many vocational education teachers do not participate in relevant in-service training programs that would help to keep their teaching methods current. Laboratories and equipment are often inadequate, poorly maintained, unsafe and out-of-date. Poor labour market analysis can result in an over-supply of some of the most popular basic industrial trades, so that young people are trained for jobs that are in short supply or that do not exist. Few programs offer training in the basic entrepreneurial skills that would benefit students who might want to go on to become self-employed workers or to run small businesses.

There are several additional concerns with specialized vocational institutions or TVIs at the secondary level. With few articulation programs, they usually don't provide an opportunity for further academic education. Students from lower socio-economic backgrounds are often overrepresented in TVIs, raising equity concerns. Often, TVIs operate under a Ministry of Labour and provide a qualification that is recognized by industry or commerce, yet many TVIs fail to develop links to industry and to the labour market, and training does not reflect labour market realities.

They are also attempting to offer a blend of academic and vocational courses and to create flexible pathways to further education and training through articulation agreements with other institutions. But institutional capacity for curriculum review, development and implementation, and for the management of educational change, is often very limited.

3.2 Post-secondary TVET

The role of post-secondary institutions is obviously central to development. Their TVET programs are intended to train a qualified and adaptable labour force to support knowledge-driven economic growth. These institutions help developing countries build capacity to access existing stores of global knowledge and to adapt that knowledge to local use. Post-secondary programs also have an important role to play in strengthening institutional capacities in all sectors and at all levels of the economy. In the agricultural sector, for example, they are the main source of technical information and skills development for farmers through agricultural training programs.

For CIDA, an important issue in support for post-secondary level programs is the limited access afforded marginalized students. Secondary school enrolment and completion rates for disadvantaged students are low, and many will not have the qualifications to enter post-secondary education. Many who do complete secondary education must immediately begin working to help support their families. Young women face additional social and cultural constraints, and students from remote and rural areas face the issue leaving of their communities for long periods of time. For most families, the costs of post-secondary education are prohibitive.

The quality of programming at the post-secondary level, particularly in TVET institutions, may also be a concern. These institutions may not have sufficient funding to ensure that libraries, computer facilities, and technical and scientific labs and equipment are maintained and replaced when they are obsolete. Residential facilities may be in poor repair or even unsafe, a situation that is particularly unacceptable for young women who live in highly traditional communities. Finding and keeping staff with relevant and up-to-date training and qualifications is difficult; teachers who receive additional training may not stay in teaching long, since they can often find higher paying jobs in the private sector. Another critical issue is the need to develop institutional capacity to conduct effective labour market analysis. Finally, in many developing countries, there are just not enough jobs to absorb TVET tertiary level graduates. Some find better job opportunities outside their home countries and migrate, with the home country losing the investment in their education and training.

3.3 Non-formal TVSD programming

Non-formal education refers to organized and systematic learning that is provided outside the formal education system. In many developing countries, non-formal programs come under the control of a department within a Ministry of Education, which coordinates the activities of various government and non-government agencies (NGOs) involved the implementation of non-formal programming.

Non-formal TVSD programs target specific groups of young people and provide practical training that is environment-based and community-related. Programs are often based on a combination of classroom and workplace-based training. In addition to vocational skills, programs offer basic literacy and numeracy, life skills, job readiness and employability skills. They often provide disadvantaged youth with life skills programming in nutrition, reproductive health and HIV/AIDS protection. In some cases, non-formal programs include training in small business management, and provide links to micro-credit opportunities. These programs tend to be short-term, part-time and flexible. The training does not result in any certification and does not serve as an entry point to a higher level of formal education

Non-formal programs have shown success in giving youth a better opportunity to obtain adequate employment. However, non-formal vocational programs do have limitations. Programs may not provide transferable skills that allow young people to respond to changes in the labour market or work environment. Concerns can also include the level of staff qualifications and experience, the quality and type of equipment and learning materials, the safety of learning environments, and links to available, long-term jobs within the community. Finally, program sustainability may be an issue; many programs rely on the commitment of a particular agency or group of individuals.

3.4 Enterprise-based and private TVET Training

Enterprise-based training is provided by employers operating in the formal sector of the economy. The private sector can play a crucial role in the delivery of training programs; it can accurately identify training needs, ensure the availability of qualified trainers, and provide appropriate and up-to-date equipment and facilities. The private sector has the potential to be more flexible, responsive and efficient in delivering programs in response to specific needs of the labour market.

At the same time, in some areas the number of private, independent and un-regulated TVET providers is increasing dramatically. The quality of training can vary, leaving clients very vulnerable to exploitation.

In both enterprise-based and private TVET provision, the government has a central role to play in ensuring that training standards are consistent with labour market requirements for specific skills, export opportunities and access to economic union agreements.

3.5 The informal economy and traditional apprenticeship programs

The informal economy is by far the largest employer in poor areas and, through apprenticeships, it provides the majority of training opportunities in many areas of Africa, South Asia and Latin America. Apprenticeships are important for the transfer of skills and for employment generation. It is difficult to estimate the number of apprenticeships in developing countries, since they are not registered or monitored, but they are widespread. Young men and women, typically between 18 and 21 years of age, some with a primary school education, are trained, on the job, in a broad range of micro-enterprises. They usually pay for their training in cash or in labour. Apprenticeships are well ingrained in local custom and are largely self-regulating. Many are successful, with former apprentices going on to create their own micro-enterprise.

There are many concerns about the informal apprenticeship system. Apprenticeships are generally controlled and limited by families, social groups or guilds. Many young people from poorer families cannot afford the initial costs involved. Access for young women tends to be limited.

With no link to the formal system, apprentices get little exposure to theory or to new technologies; the ILO states that "the static nature of skills development in informal apprenticeship is a serious obstacle to technological progress in informal economy enterprises and on farms". Low levels of literacy and educational attainment are common among informal sector workers, and opportunities to develop these skills are minimal.

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4.0 International Policy and Donor Direction in TVET

International commitment to strengthened TVET programming is clear. At the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, in April 2000, the international community, including Canada, made a commitment to "ensure that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programs". Canada has also made a commitment to the Millennium Development Goals, which include the target of developing and implementing strategies for decent and productive work for youth.

In March 2005, Canada endorsed the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness which recommends that developing countries exercise leadership over their development policies and strategies, including those for the education sector, and when possible, coordinate development actions. The Paris Declaration encourages donors to work with developing country governments to promote mutual accountability for development results. It also recommends that donor support for sectors such as education take into account developing country's national strategies, institutions and procedures. Commitment to the Paris Declaration also means that donors will, whenever possible, work together to ensure that support is harmonized, transparent and collectively effective.

In the spirit of the Paris Declaration, many donors are channeling funds through a sector-wide approach (SWAp) or a Program-based approach (PBA), providing support to a developing country's own education sector policy and expenditure programs, which may include TVET initiatives. These aid modalities encourage greater government ownership and opportunities to link with national poverty reduction plans. They can also enhance transparency and donor harmonization, reduce transaction costs, and create opportunities for civil society engagement. A major advantage of SWAps and PBAs for developing country governments is greater predictability of aid flows.

However, investment in individual TVET projects is still critical. One factor contributing to the importance of a project approach is the need to support the non-formal and informal TVET that is provided outside of formal government systems. As well, the relative weakness of TVET programming in many developing countries has created the need for small pilot programs that can build capacity and improve quality before being brought to scale. In areas that are recovering from the effects of natural disasters or from years of conflict, TVET projects play a particularly important role in re-establishing opportunities for education and employment for young people whose lives have been disrupted.

All of the major donors active in the education sector are involved in TVET programming to some extent. Germany and Japan focus a significant proportion of their education sector support on TVET, providing advisory services and technical assistance components to help developing countries build efficient and effective TVET systems, particularly at the post-secondary level. The United States provides funding for both formal and non-formal vocational programs through stand-alone projects. Norway and Denmark have a strong focus on non-formal programs. The United Kingdom is increasingly emphasizing the use of PBAs in its support of the education sector, but has also established a program called Development Partnerships in Higher Education (DelPHE). In 2006, DelPHE funded 42 projects to develop cross-country, cross-regional or international partnerships between post-secondary academic and TVET institutions. International financial institutions such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the Inter-American Development Bank support a wide range of programs and projects in TVET.

There are a number of agencies that provide essential support to work in TVET. The International Labour Organization (ILO), a tripartite United Nations agency, brings together governments, employers and workers to reduce poverty, promote fair globalization, and advance opportunities for women and men to obtain decent and productive work. UNEVOC is a UNESCO organization dedicated to developing and improving technical and vocational education through networking and the exchange of information. The Network for Policy Research, Review and Advice on Education and Training (NORRAG), is a forum for the analysis of aid and international policy development in the education and training sector. The Working Group for International Cooperation in Skills Development is an informal group of bilateral and multilateral donor agencies involved in international assistance to vocational and technical skills development.

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5.0 Challenges in TVET Programming

There are great differences in approaches, experiences and accomplishments in TVET programming worldwide, and the needs of countries in East Asia will obviously differ from those of countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Regardless of the region, however, the government and donor expectations of TVET in terms of its impact on employment, economic competitiveness, development and poverty reduction are often very high. These expectations must be tempered by the following lessons learned and challenges identified through international experience in TVET:

1. The crucial importance of the economic and social context

The economic context and environment of TVET programming is critical. A stagnant economy or one that is in the crisis of civil unrest or war is unlikely to provide employment for the most qualified and well-trained TVET graduate. Economies that are growing, providing more and better employment opportunities, are improving access to and adoption of new technologies and have available financial capital are, of course, the ideal environments for increased investment in TVET. The provision of education and training is fundamental but on its own is insufficient. TVET is most effective as one component of solid economic, labour market and social policies such as trade, private sector development, rural and urban regeneration, and labour market reforms. Yet, realistically, it is often the poorer economies that have the most pressing need for training programs for young people.

2. Limited access for disadvantaged groups

A particular challenge for developing country governments will be the development of long-term strategies to increase the participation of disadvantaged groups in TVET. The access of women to TVET is a major concern, but other groups are also excluded. Access for ethnic minority groups can be limited when programs are delivered in official or mainstream languages only. Actual and opportunity costs may be too high for students from low-income families. Access for students from rural areas may be difficult because many vocational institutions and programs are located in major cities, and students have to deal with the financial and social implications of living away from their families. The TVET system may be designed to cater to young people, leaving older workers with little chance for training.



3. The stigma of vocational education

In some regions, public perception of TVET as second class education will continue to limit enrolment rates. Reform and strengthening of TVET will help to change public perception and increase demand. There are many steps that developing country governments can take, including institutional capacity building, the establishment of effective accreditation systems, improvement of teacher training, curriculum reform, and improved labour market analysis.

4. The issue of high costs and sustainability

The costs of TVET programming can be high and financial sustainability of programs may be in question. Budget allocations for TVET, particularly for maintenance, up-grading of facilities and equipment and on-going professional development of staff are often much smaller than is required. Funding must also allow for the replacement of obsolete equipment, the maintenance of facilities, and the creation of up-to-date technical, scientific and computer labs and libraries. This is a serious challenge for countries that are struggling to both meet the goal of universal completion of primary education and to extend access to lower and upper secondary education for new waves of primary graduates.

5. Poor quality of primary and lower secondary education

Low enrolment and/or poor quality in primary and lower secondary education will have a direct impact on skills and knowledge acquisition within TVET programs. If achievement in literacy, mathematics and science are low at the primary and lower secondary level, students will not have the basic academic skills they need to succeed in TVET programs. The Republic of Korea is often given as an example of how TVET can fuel economic growth and their experience may offer key lessons. The government took a sequenced approach to education and did not focus strongly on TVET until the country had nearly achieved universal primary education.

6. Weak TVET governance

The governance and management of TVET may not be strong in many developing countries. Ministries of Education often share responsibility for TVET with Ministries of Higher Education and Labour, among others. There can be a wide range of TVET authorities and institutions in one country, including state, non-governmental and private providers, all with differing interests, administrative structures, and approaches to TVET and communication and coordination among them may be ineffective. Many countries with poorly performing TVET systems are attempting to strengthen institutional capacity, by building administrative skills, and developing sound resource allocation and accounting practices, and improving human resource policies and practices.


7. The problem of corruption

TVET may be particularly vulnerable to corruption, an issue that poses a fundamental threat to education outcomes. It is essential that education sector assessments identify the problem - whether it occurs outside the education sector (buying and selling of construction or procurement contracts, cost inflation) or inside (buying and selling of teaching positions, grades or admission to preferred schools) - and that remedial options be identified.

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6.0 Building on Canadian Expertise

CIDA's work in the formal sector includes improved TVET governance and institutional capacity building. CIDA has provided support for vocational education reform, TVET policy and planning development and industry-institutional linkages, and has introduced a skills-based approach to TVET systems in four African countries. CIDA has also worked extensively in non-formal TVET programming, particularly in post-conflict areas such as Rwanda, Cambodia and Somalia, and in post-emergency situations in Sri Lanka and Indonesia, and has supported non-formal TVET programming for people with disabilities, and for marginalized and abused women.

Canada is recognized for its strong education system, and for the high quality of its technical and vocational programming at the secondary school, community college and university levels. In its future work in TVET, CIDA will be guided by the needs identified by its country partners and will work within CIDA and country partner strategies, using appropriate aid modalities, policy dialogue and capacity development. CIDA will build on the strong partnerships it has developed with Canadian groups, networks, organizations and institutions with experience and expertise in TVET, and with the municipal and provincial government departments that have supported the development of strong and effective TEVT governance systems. Areas of Canadian expertise and potential areas for CIDA's involvement include:

• Support for improved governance of TVET systems, including capacity building in TVET administration and management, setting of standards of practice and the implementation of accreditation and evaluation systems;
• Support for the establishment of non-formal TVET programs for marginalized or disadvantaged groups including strategies to increase participation of women in non-traditional occupations;
• The development of innovative funding modalities to support TVET programming;
• Development of strong links with the labour market and support for the establishment of public-private partnerships;
• Improvement of labour market regulations and practices regarding youth employment;
• Support for TVET curriculum review, development and implementation including the use of distance education delivery strategies and strengthened TVET pre-service and in-service teacher training programs;
• Support for the use of the Canadian skills-based approach to training;
• Establishment of links between TVET institutions nationally, regionally and internationally;
• Applied research to guide CIDA investment in TVET.